Anger and hostility in depression

Article Abstract:

Most current theories on the underlying basis of depression consider repressed (unexpressed) anger to be a cause. Some theories describe depression as the result of 'anger turned inward' against the self. This study explored the connections between anger and depression by comparing three groups of subjects: 120 normal adults (parents of school children who participated in a health survey); 36 inpatients being treated for a major depressive episode; and 54 veterans hospitalized with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The latter group was included because it is recognized that people suffering from PTSD have difficulty controlling their anger. All of the subjects completed written evaluations of anger and hostility. The results showed that the three groups significantly differed from each other on all measures of hostility, anger experience (intensity, frequency, and duration of anger), and suppression and expression of anger. For levels of hostility and anger experience, the depressed group was intermediate between the normal subjects and the PTSD group, with the latter having the highest levels. Depressed patients suppressed their anger more than either the PTSD or the normal group, and expressed only as much anger as the normal subjects. The veterans with PTSD expressed the most anger. When the depressed subjects were compared with each other on these measures, the more severely depressed patients had higher levels of hostility and anger experience. However, depression severity was only slightly related to anger suppression, and did not directly correlate with anger expression. It is concluded that depressed patients tend to suppress, rather than express, their anger, but this tendency may be less important in causing depression than their anger experience, namely, how often and how intensely they feel anger. (Consumer Summary produced by Reliance Medical Information, Inc.)

Post-traumatic stress disorder, Anger

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Single case study: Melatonin and cortisol "switches" during mania, depression, and euthymia in a drug-free bipolar patient

Article Abstract:

Low levels of the hormone melatonin, which is of unknown function, and elevated levels of the hormone cortisol, which is produced by the same part of the body that produces adrenalin, have been seen to accompany depression. There is scantier evidence that during mania, the levels of these two substances are reversed. One patient was examined during depression, mania, and euthymia, the normal condition. Melatonin levels were elevated during mania and cortisol levels during depression. There were no marked changes in the body's daily cycle (circadian rhythm) between any of the three states. These facts have implications for dysfunction of hormones associated with the hormone norepinephrine.

Usage, Bipolar disorder, Melatonin, Cortisone

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Evidence for a menstrual-linked artifact in determining rates of depression

Article Abstract:

Women are more likely to be depressed before than after menstruation. Thus, cyclical variations may cause the prevalence of depression in women to be overestimated. Further studies are needed to determine if the effect of menstruation is specific enough that it should be compensated for in psychiatric diagnoses and research.

Women, Menstrual cycle, Premenstrual syndrome

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