Fear conditioning, meaning, and belongingness: a selective association analysis

Article Abstract:

Ever since Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell, some learning theorists have maintained that the fundamental rules of learning are independent of any relationship between the stimuli and the responses. In Pavlov's case, it is suggested that the bell had no relationship to salivation, and that the use of a flashing light, a scratch on the head, or any other stimulus would not have changed the experimental outcome. In the past two decades, however, some experiments have called into question the principle of equipotentiality, which, loosely stated, means one stimuli or response is as good as any other for producing a conditioned response. Highly influential in this regard is the work of Garcia, who theorized that rats could learn to associate gastric distress with taste under conditions which classical theory said would make learning impossible. Other results are now beginning to accumulate that cast further doubt on some of the basic beliefs that surround classical conditioning experiments. A different set of forty undergraduate students were used in each of three experiments; in each trial the electrical conductance of the student's skin and the volume of the finger pulse were measured as the response to stimuli. It was found that pairs of stimuli with greater "belongingness" were easier to associate than pairs with lower belongingness. For example, when a slide of a screaming face, the conditioned stimulus or CS, was paired with an electric shock, the unconditioned stimulus or US, the students quickly learned to respond to the photo as though they were about to receive a shock. However, when a photo of a landscape was paired with an electric shock, the learning occurred less quickly. Other pairs of CSs and USs were used, such as circles with loud tones and landscapes with screams to demonstrate that not all pairs of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli work equivalently in this paradigm. (Consumer Summary produced by Reliance Medical Information, Inc.)

Case studies, Conditioned response, Conditioned responses, Vasomotor conditioning, Cardiovascular conditioning

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Fear imagery and the startle-probe reflex

Article Abstract:

The results of previous studies have indicated that the extent of the startle response is influenced by aversive emotion, particularly a state of fearfulness. Affective imagery also plays a role in this response. Episodic memories that are activated may elicit a startle response that is similar to one caused by an actual event. The recollection of unpleasant memories also correlates with increased heart rate. This study examined 36 normal subjects to determine the increase in the extent of startle-probe reflexes when exposed to fearful sensory stimuli or when fearful memories were evoked. Six pairs of fearful and neutral sentences were given to the subjects to memorize. This was followed by a series of uniform tones and then a change in pitch to recall one of the sentences. The group was separated into three subgroups and each was given one of the following three different instructions: relax and ignore the sentence; silently recall the sentence; or imagine the sentence as a real experience. All of the subjects were instructed to perform the imagery task when a second cue tone was given. A series of unexpected startle probes were interjected during recall trials and relaxation periods. Measurements of blink reflexes and heart rate in response to the acoustic probes were made; self-reports were also obtained from the subjects. The results indicate that startle reflexes were greater when fear-evoking sentences were recalled. Blink responses were larger and heart rates were accelerated when accompanied with negative imagery; self-reports indicated higher levels arousal and unpleasantness. The results support the hypothesis that the startle-reflex is exaggerated by negative affect and appears to be independent of how the negative affect is elicited. This information may enhance methodology used to evaluate emotional response and development and identification of pathological features. (Consumer Summary produced by Reliance Medical Information, Inc.)

Measurement, Heart beat, Heart rate, Eyelids, Reflexes, Imagery (Psychology)

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Affective individuals differences and startle reflex modulation

Article Abstract:

The startle reflex is a response to sudden intense stimuli resulting in such reactions as eyeblink, forward and downward head movement, and muscle contraction and abduction (moving a limb away from the center of the body). The degree of underlying fear or anxiety within an individual has been suggested as a factor that contributes to the intensity of the startle reflex. For example, it has been observed that individuals suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder exhibit exaggerated startle responses. Other research has found an association between the emotional state of the individual and the intensity of the startle response, that is, the underlying emotional state may potentiate this response. To further investigate this phenomenon, 32 of 538 undergraduates who completed a Fear Survey Schedule were asked to participate in a study because of their extreme scores. The subjects were then classified as having a response of 'low fear' (seven males and eight females) or 'high fear' (nine males and eight females). Negative or positive imagery were displayed to the participants; the subject matter was selected based on its likelihood of eliciting such responses as fear, anger, or sadness (negative imagery), or joy and relaxation (positive imagery). The subjects were equipped with electrodes which measured physical manifestations of the startle response during a particular set of imagery. When the results were examined, a positive relationship was found in both groups between the magnitude of the startle response and the negative imagery. However, those in the high-fear group exhibited a stronger response than those in the low-fear group. Although this hypothesis is not new, this is the first objective evidence that supports this reaction in humans. It is concluded that the startle reflex is potentiated by negative affect, and fear, in particular, enhances this response. (Consumer Summary produced by Reliance Medical Information, Inc.)

Complications and side effects, Affective disorders, Mood disorders, Anxiety

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